Educational psychology
From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific
study of human learning. The study of learning processes, from both cognitive
and behavioral perspectives, allows researchers to understand individual
differences in intelligence, cognitive development, affect, motivation,
self-regulation, and self-concept, as well as their role in learning. The field
of educational psychology relies heavily on quantitative methods, including
testing and measurement, to enhance educational activities related to instructional
design, classroom management, and assessment, which serve to facilitate
learning processes in various educational settings across the lifespan.[1]
Educational psychology can in part
be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed
primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the
relationship between medicine and biology. It is also informed by neuroscience.
Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialities within
educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education
and classroom management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science
and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are
usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack
of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology
textbooks.[2]
The field of educational psychology
involves the study of memory, conceptual processes, and individual differences
(via cognitive psychology) in conceptualizing new strategies for learning
processes in humans. Educational psychology has been built upon theories of
Operant conditioning, functionalism, structuralism, constructivism, humanistic
psychology, Gestalt psychology, and information processing.[1]
Educational Psychology has seen
rapid growth and development as a profession in the last twenty years.[3]
School psychology began with the concept of intelligence testing leading to
provisions for special education students, whom could not follow the regular
classroom curriculum in the early part of the 20th century.[3]
However, "School Psychology" itself has built a fairly new profession
based upon the practices and theories of several psychologists among many
different fields. Educational Psychologists are working side by side with
psychiatrists, social workers, teachers, speech and language therapists, and
counselors in attempt to understand the questions being raised when combining
behavioral, cognitive, and social psychology in the classroom setting.[3]
Contents
- 1 History
- 2 Perspectives
- 3 Conditioning and learning
- 4 Technology
- 5 Applications
- 6 Methods of research
- 7 See also
- 8 References
- 9 Further reading
- 10 External links
History
Early
years
Educational Psychology is a fairly
new and growing field of study. Though it can date back as early as the days of
Plato and Aristotle, it was not identified as a specific practice. It was
unknown that everyday teaching and learning in which individuals had to think
about individual differences, assessment, development, the nature of a subject
being taught, problem solving, and transfer of learning was the beginning to
the field of educational psychology. These topics are important to education
and as a result it is important to understanding human cognition, learning, and
social perception.[4]
Plato
and Aristotle
Educational psychology dates back to
the time of Aristotle and Plato. Plato and Aristotle researched individual differences in
the field of education, training of the body and the cultivation of
psycho-motor skills, the formation of good character, the possibilities and
limits of moral education. Some other educational topics they spoke about were
the effects of music, poetry, and the other arts on the development of
individual, role of teacher, and the relations between teacher and student.[4]
Plato saw knowledge as an innate ability, which evolves through experience and
understanding of the world. Such a statement has evolved into a continuing
argument of nature vs. nurture in understanding conditioning and learning
today. Aristotle
observed the phenomenon of "association." His four laws of
association included succession, contiguity, similarity, and contrast. His
studies examined recall and facilitated learning processes [5]
John
Locke
John Locke followed by contrasting Plato's theory of innate learning
processes. Rather, he introduced the term "tabula rasa" meaning
"blank slate." Locke explained that learning was primarily understood
through experience only, and we were all born without knowledge. Locke
introduced this idea as "empiricism," or the understanding that
knowledge is only built on learning and experience.
Before
1890
Philosophers of education such as
Juan Vives, Johann Pestalozzi, Friedrich Fröbel, and Johann Herbart had
examined, classified and judged the methods of education centuries before the
beginnings of psychology in the late 1800s.
Juan
Vives
Juan Vives (1493–1540) proposed induction as the method of study and
believed in the direct observation and investigation of the study of nature.
His studies focus of humanistic learning, which opposed scholasticism and was
influenced by a variety of sources including philosophy, psychology,
politics,religion, and history.[6]
He was one of the first to emphasize that the location of the school is
important to learning.[7]
He suggested that the school should be located away from disturbing noises; the
air quality should be good and there should be plenty of food for the students
and teachers.[7]Vives
emphasized the importance of understanding individual differences of the
students and suggested practice as an important tool for learning.[7]
Vives introduced his educational
ideas in his writing, "De anima et vita" in 1538. In this
publication, Vives explores moral philosophy as a setting for his educational
ideals; with this, he explains that the different parts of the soul (similar to
that of Aristotle's ideas) are each responsible for different operations, which
function distinctively. The first book covers the different "souls":
"The Vegatative Soul;" this is the soul of nutrition, growth, and
reproduction, "The Sensitive Soul," which involves the five external
senses; "The Cogitative soul," which includes internal senses and
cognitive facilities. The second book involves functions of the rational soul:
mind, will, and memory. Lastly, the third book explains the analysis of
emotions.[8]
Johann
Pestalozzi
Johann Pestalozzi (1746–1827), a German educational reformer, emphasized the
child rather than the content of the school.[9]
Pestalozzi fostered an educational reform backed by the idea that early
education was crucial for children, and could be manageable for mothers.
Eventually, this experience with early education would lead to a
"wholesome person characterized by morality" [10]
Pestalozzi has been acknowledged for opening institutions for education,
writing books for mother's teaching home education, and elementary books for
students, mostly focusing on the kindergarten level. In his later years, he
published teaching manuals and methods of teaching.[10]
During the time of The Enlightenment,
Pestalozzi's ideals introduced "educationalisation." This created the
bridge between social issues and education by introducing the idea of social
issues to be solved through education. Horlacher describes the most prominent
example of this during The Enlightenment to be "improving agricultural
production methods." [10]
Johann
Herbart
Johann Herbart (1776–1841) is
considered the father of educational psychology.[11]
He believed that learning was influenced by interest in the subject and the
teacher.[11]
He thought that teachers should consider the students existing mental sets,
what they already know, when presenting new information or material.[11]
Herbart came up with what is now known as the formal steps. The 5 steps that
teachers should use are:
- Review material that has already been learned by the teacher[11]
- Prepare the student for new material by giving them an overview of what they are learning next[11]
- Present the new material.[11]
- Relate the new material to the old material that has already been learned.[11]
- Show how the student can apply the new material and show the material they will learn next.[11]
1890–1920
William
James
William James
The period of 1890–1920 is
considered the golden era of educational psychology where aspirations of the
new discipline rested on the application of the scientific methods of
observation and experimentation to educational problems. From 1840 to 1920 37
million people immigrated to the United States.[6]
This created an expansion of elementary schools and secondary schools. The
increase in immigration also provided educational psychologists the opportunity
to use intelligence testing to screen immigrants at Ellis Island.[6]Darwinism
influenced the beliefs of the prominent educational psychologists.[6]
Even in the earliest years of the discipline, educational psychologists
recognized the limitations of this new approach. The pioneering American
psychologist William James commented that:
Psychology is a science, and
teaching is an art; and sciences never generate arts directly out of
themselves. An intermediate inventive mind must make that application, by using
its originality".[12]
James is the father of psychology in
America but he also made contributions to educational psychology. In his famous
series of lectures Talks to Teachers on Psychology, published in 1899
and now regarded as the first educational psychology textbook, James defines
education as "the organization of acquired habits of conduct and
tendencies to behavior".[12]
He states that teachers should "train the pupil to behavior"[12]
so that he fits into the social and physical world. Teachers should also
realize the importance of habit and instinct. They should present information
that is clear and interesting and relate this new information and material to
things the student already knows about.[12]
He also addresses important issues such as attention, memory, and association
of ideas.
Alfred
Binet
Alfred Binet published Mental Fatigue in 1898, in which he
attempted to apply the experimental method to educational psychology.[6]
In this experimental method he advocated for two types of experiments,
experiments done in the lab and experiments done in the classroom. In 1904 he
was appointed the Minister of Public Education.[6]
This is when he began to look for a way to distinguish children with developmental
disabilities.[6]Binet
strongly supported special education programs because he believed that
"abnormality" could be cured.[6]
The Binet-Simon test was the first intelligence test and was the first to
distinguish between "normal children" and those with developmental
disabilities.[6]Binet
believed that it was important to study individual differences between age
groups and children of the same age.[6]
He also believed that it was important for teachers to take into account
individual students strengths and also the needs of the classroom as a whole
when teaching and creating a good learning environment.[6]
He also believed that it was important to train teachers in observation so that
they would be able to see individual differences among children and adjust the
curriculum to the students.[6]Binet
also emphasized that practice of material was important. In 1916 Lewis Terman
revised the Binet-Simon so that the average score was always 100.[11]
The test became known as the Stanford-Binet and was one of the most widely used
tests of intelligence. Terman, unlike Binet, was interested in using
intelligence test to identify gifted children who had high intelligence.[6]
In his longitudinal study of gifted children, who became known as the Termites,
Terman found that gifted children become gifted adults.[11]
Edward
Thorndike
Edward Thorndike (1874–1949) supported the scientific movement in education.
He based teaching practices on empirical evidence and measurement.[6]
Thorndike developed the theory of instrumental
conditioning or the law of effect. The law of
effect states that associations are strengthened when it is followed by
something pleasing and associations are weakened when followed by something not
pleasing. He also found that learning is done a little at a time or in
increments, learning is an automatic process and all the principles of learning
apply to all mammals. Thorndike's research with Robert Woodworth
on the theory of transfer found that learning one subject will only influence
your ability to learn another subject if the subjects are similar.[6]
This discovery led to less emphasis on learning the classics because they found
that studying the classics does not contribute to overall general intelligence.[6]
Thorndike was one of the first to say that individual differences in cognitive
tasks were due to how many stimulus response patterns a person had rather than
a general intellectual ability.[6]
He contributed word dictionaries that were scientifically based to determine
the words and definitions used.[6]
The dictionaries were the first to take into consideration the users maturity
level.[6]
He also integrated pictures and easier pronunciation guide into each of the
definitions.[6]
Thorndike contributed arithmetic books based on learning theory. He made all
the problems more realistic and relevant to what was being studied, not just to
improve the general intelligence.[6]
He developed tests that were standardized to measure performance in school
related subjects.[6]
His biggest contribution to testing was the CAVD intelligence test which used a
multidimensional approach to intelligence and the first to use a ratio scale.[6]
His later work was on programmed instruction, mastery learning and
computer-based learning:
If, by a miracle of mechanical
ingenuity, a book could be so arranged that only to him who had done what was
directed on page one would page two become visible, and so on, much that now
requires personal instruction could be managed by print.[13]
John
Dewey
John Dewey (1859–1952) had a major influence on the development of
progressive education in the United States. He believed that the classroom
should prepare children to be good citizens and facilitate creative
intelligence.[6]
He pushed for the creation of practical class that could be applied outside of
a school setting.[6]
He also thought that education should be student-oriented not subject-oriented.
For Dewey education was social that helped bring together generations of
people. He states that students learn by doing. He believed in an active mind
that was able to be educated through observation and problem solving and
inquiry. In his 1910 book How We Think he emphasizes that material
should be provided in way that is stimulating and interesting to the student
and it encourages original thoughts and problem solving.[14]
He also stated that material should be relative to the student's own
experience.[14]
"The material furnished by way
of information should be relevant to a question that is vital in the students
own experience"[14]
Jean
Piaget
Jean Piaget (1896–1980) developed the theory of cognitive development.[6]
The theory stated that intelligence developed in four different stages. The
stages are the sensorimotor stage from birth to 2 years old, the preoperational
state from 2 years old to 7 years old, the concrete operational stage from 7
years old to 10 years old, and formal operational stage from 11 years old and
up.[6]
He also believed that learning was constrained to the child's cognitive
development. Piaget influenced educational psychology because he was the first
to believe that cognitive development was important and something that should
be paid attention to in education.[6]
Most of the research on Piagetian theory was mainly tested and done by American
educational psychologists
1920–present
The amount of people receiving a
high school and college education increased dramatically from 1920 to 1960.[6]
Because of very little jobs available to the teens coming out of eighth grade
there was an increase in high school attendance in the 1930s .[6]
The progressive movement in the United State took off at this time and led to
the idea of progressive education. John Flanagan, an educational psychologist,
developed tests for combat trainees and instructions in combat training.[6]
In 1954 the work of Kenneth Clark and his wife on the effects of segregation on
black and white children was influential in the Supreme Court case Brown v.
Board of Education.[11]
From the 1960s to present day educational psychology has switched from a
behaviorist perspective to a more cognitive based perspective because of the
influence and development of cognitive psychology at this time.[6]
Jerome
Bruner
Jerome Bruner is notable for integrating Jean Piaget's
cognitive approaches into educational psychology.[6]
He advocated for discovery learning where teachers create a problem solving environment that
allows the student to question, explore and experiment.[6]
In his book The Process of Education Bruner stated that the structure of
the material and the cognitive abilities of the person are important in
learning.[6]
He emphasized the importance of the subject matter. He also believed that how
the subject was structured was important for the students understanding of the
subject and it is the goal of the teacher to structure the subject in a way
that was easy for the student to understand.[6]
In the early 1960s Bruner went to Africa to teach math and science to
schoolchildren, which influenced his view as schooling as a cultural
institution. Bruner was also influential in the development of MACOS, Man a
Course of Study, which was an educational program that combined anthropology
and science.[6]
The program explored human evolution and social behavior. He also helped with
the development of the head start program. He was interested in the influence
of culture on education and looked at the impact of poverty on educational
development.[6]
Benjamin
Bloom
Benjamin Bloom (1913–1999) spent over 50 years at the University of Chicago where he worked in the department of education.[6]
He believed that all students can learn. He developed taxonomy
of educational objectives.[6]
The objectives were divided into three domains: cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor. The cognitive domain deals with how we think.[15]
It is divided into categories that are on a continuum from easiest to more
complex.[15]
The categories are knowledge or recall, comprehension application, analysis,
synthesis and evaluation.[15]
The affective domain deals with emotions and has 5 categories.[15]
The categories are receiving phenomenon, responding to that phenomenon,
valuing, organization, and internalizing values.[15]
The psychomotor domain deals with the development of motor skills, movement and
coordination and has 7 categories, that also goes from simplest to complex.[15]
The 7 categories of the psychomotor domain are perception, set, guided
response, mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation, and origination.[15]
The taxonomy provided broad educational objectives that could be used to help
expand the curriculum to match the ideas in the taxonomy.[6]
The taxonomy is considered to have a greater influence internationally than in
the United States. Internationally, the taxonomy is used in every aspect of
education from training of the teachers to the development of testing material.[6]
Bloom believed in communicating clear learning goals and promoting an active
student. He thought that teachers should provide feedback to the students on
their strengths and weaknesses.[6]
Bloom also did research on college students and their problem solving
processes. He found that they differ in understanding the basis of the problem
and the ideas in the problem. He also found that students differ in process of
problem solving in their approach and attitude toward the problem.[6]
Nathaniel
Gage
Nathaniel Gage is important in educational psychology because he did
research to improve teaching and understand the processes involved in teaching.[6]
In 1963 he was the editor of the Handbook of Research on Teaching, which
became an influential book in educational psychology. The handbook helped set
up research on teaching and made research on teaching important to educational
psychology.[6]
He also was influential in the founding of the Stanford Center for Research and
Development in teaching, which not only contributed important research on
teaching but also influenced the teaching of important educational
psychologists.[6]
Perspectives
Cognitive
An example of an item from a
cognitive abilities test
Each person has an individual
profile of characteristics, abilities and challenges that result from
predisposition, learning and development. These manifest as individual
differences in intelligence, creativity, cognitive style,
motivation
and the capacity to process information, communicate, and relate to others. The
most prevalent disabilities found among school age children are attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD), learning disability, dyslexia, and speech disorder.
Less common disabilities include intellectual disability, hearing impairment, cerebral palsy,
epilepsy, and blindness.[16]
Although theories of intelligence
have been discussed by philosophers since Plato, intelligence testing is an invention of educational
psychology, and is coincident with the development of that discipline.
Continuing debates about the nature of intelligence revolve on whether
intelligence can be characterized by a single factor known as general
intelligence,[17]
multiple factors (e.g., Gardner'stheory
of multiple intelligences[18]),
or whether it can be measured at all. In practice, standardized instruments
such as the Stanford-Binet IQ test and the WISC[19]
are widely used in economically developed countries to identify children in
need of individualized educational treatment. Children classified as gifted are often provided with accelerated or enriched programs.
Children with identified deficits may be provided with enhanced education in
specific skills such as phonological awareness. In addition to basic abilities, the individual's
personality traits are also important, with people higher in conscientiousness
and hope attaining
superior academic achievements, even after controlling for intelligence and
past performance.[20]
Behavioral
Applied
behavior analysis, a research-based science utilizing
behavioral principles of operant conditioning, is effective in a range of educational settings.[21]
For example, teachers can alter student behavior by systematically rewarding
students who follow classroom rules with praise, stars, or tokens exchangeable
for sundry items.[22][23]
Despite the demonstrated efficacy of awards in changing behavior, their use in
education has been criticized by proponents of self-determination
theory, who claim that praise and other
rewards undermine intrinsic motivation. There is evidence that tangible rewards decrease intrinsic
motivation in specific situations, such as when the student already has a high
level of intrinsic motivation to perform the goal behavior.[24]
But the results showing detrimental effects are counterbalanced by evidence
that, in other situations, such as when rewards are given for attaining a
gradually increasing standard of performance, rewards enhance intrinsic
motivation.[25][26]
Many effective therapies have been based on the principles of applied behavior
analysis, including pivotal
response therapy which is used to treat autism
spectrum disorders.
Social
Among
current educational psychologists, the cognitive perspective is more widely
held than the behavioral perspective, perhaps because it admits causally
related mental constructs such as traits, beliefs, memories, motivations
and emotions.
Cognitive theories claim that memory structures determine how information is perceived,
processed, stored, retrieved and forgotten. Among the memory structures theorized by cognitive
psychologists are separate but linked visual and verbal systems described by Allan Paivio'sdual coding theory. Educational psychologists have used dual coding theory and
cognitive load theory to explain how people learn from multimedia
presentations.[27]
Three experiments reported by Krug,
Davis and Glover[28]
demonstrated the advantage of delaying a 2nd reading of a text passage by one
week (distributed) compared with no delay between readings (massed).
The spaced learning effect, a
cognitive phenomenon strongly supported by psychological research, has broad applicability
within education.[29]
For example, students have been found to perform better on a test of knowledge
about a text passage when a second reading of the passage is delayed rather
than immediate (see figure).[28]
Educational psychology research has confirmed the applicability to education of
other findings from cognitive psychology, such as the benefits of using mnemonics
for immediate and delayed retention of information.[30]
Problem solving, according to prominent cognitive psychologists, is
fundamental to learning. It resides as an important research topic in
educational psychology. A student is thought to interpret a problem by
assigning it to a schema retrieved from long-term memory. A problem students run
into while reading is called "activation." This is when the student's
representations of the text are present during working memory. This causes the
student to read through the material without absorbing the information and
being able to retain it. When working memory is absent from the readers
representations of the working memory they experience something called
"deactivation." When deactivation occurs, the student has an
understanding of the material and is able to retain information. If
deactivation occurs during the first reading, the reader does not need to
undergo deactivation in the second reading. The reader will only need to reread
to get a "gist" of the text to spark their memory. When the problem
is assigned to the wrong schema, the student's attention is subsequently directed
away from features of the problem that are inconsistent with the assigned
schema.[31]
The critical step of finding a mapping between the problem and a pre-existing
schema is often cited as supporting the centrality of analogical
thinking to problem solving.
Developmental
Main article: Neo-Piagetian
theories of cognitive development
Developmental psychology, and
especially the psychology of cognitive development, opens a special perspective
for educational psychology. This is so because education and the psychology of
cognitive development converge on a number of crucial assumptions. First, the
psychology of cognitive development defines human cognitive competence at
successive phases of development. Education aims to help students acquire
knowledge and develop skills which are compatible with their understanding and
problem-solving capabilities at different ages. Thus, knowing the students'
level on a developmental sequence provides information on the kind and level of
knowledge they can assimilate, which, in turn, can be used as a frame for
organizing the subject matter to be taught at different school grades. This is
the reason why Piaget's
theory of cognitive development
was so influential for education, especially mathematics and science education.[32]
In the same direction, the neo-Piagetian
theories of cognitive development
suggest that in addition to the concerns above, sequencing of concepts and
skills in teaching must take account of the processing and working memory
capacities that characterize successive age levels.[33][34]
Second, the psychology of cognitive
development involves understanding how cognitive change takes place and
recognizing the factors and processes which enable cognitive competence to
develop. Education also capitalizes on cognitive change, because the construction
of knowledge presupposes effective teaching methods that would move the student
from a lower to a higher level of understanding. Mechanisms such as reflection
on actual or mental actions vis-à-vis alternative solutions to problems,
tagging new concepts or solutions to symbols that help one recall and mentally
manipulate them are just a few examples of how mechanisms of cognitive
development may be used to facilitate learning.[34][35]
Finally, the psychology of cognitive
development is concerned with individual differences in the organization of
cognitive processes and abilities, in their rate of change, and in their
mechanisms of change. The principles underlying intra- and inter-individual
differences could be educationally useful, because knowing how students differ
in regard to the various dimensions of cognitive development, such as
processing and representational capacity, self-understanding and
self-regulation, and the various domains of understanding, such as
mathematical, scientific, or verbal abilities, would enable the teacher to
cater for the needs of the different students so that no one is left behind.[34][36]
Constructivist
Main article: Constructivism
Constructivism is a category of
learning theory in which emphasis is placed on the agency and prior
"knowing" and experience of the learner, and often on the social and
cultural determinants of the learning process. Educational psychologists distinguish
individual (or psychological) constructivism, identified with Piaget's
theory of cognitive development,
from social
constructivism. A dominant influence on the latter
type is Lev Vygotsky's work on sociocultural learning, describing how
interactions with adults, more capable peers, and cognitive tools are
internalized to form mental constructs. Elaborating on Vygotsky's theory, Jerome Bruner
and other educational psychologists developed the important concept of instructional
scaffolding, in which the social or information
environment offers supports for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they
become internalized.[37]
Conditioning
and learning
To understand the characteristics of
learners in childhood,
adolescence,
adulthood,
and old age,
educational psychology develops and applies theories of human development. Often represented as stages through which people pass as
they mature, developmental theories describe changes in mental abilities (cognition),
social roles, moral reasoning, and beliefs about the nature of knowledge.
For example, educational
psychologists have conducted research on the instructional applicability of Jean Piaget's theory of development, according to which children mature through four stages of
cognitive capability. Piaget hypothesized that children are not capable of
abstract logical thought until they are older than about 11 years, and
therefore younger children need to be taught using concrete objects and
examples. Researchers have found that transitions, such as from concrete to abstract
logical thought, do not occur at the same time in all domains. A child may be
able to think abstractly about mathematics, but remain limited to concrete
thought when reasoning about human relationships. Perhaps Piaget's most
enduring contribution is his insight that people actively construct their
understanding through a self-regulatory process.[16]
Piaget proposed a developmental
theory of moral reasoning in which children progress from a naïve understanding of morality based on
behavior and outcomes to a more advanced understanding based on intentions.
Piaget's views of moral development were elaborated by Kohlberg into a stage
theory of moral development. There is
evidence that the moral reasoning described in stage theories is not sufficient
to account for moral behavior. For example, other factors such as modeling (as described by the social
cognitive theory of morality)
are required to explain bullying.
Rudolf Steiner's model of child development
interrelates physical, emotional, cognitive, and moral development[38]
in developmental stages similar to those later described by Piaget.[39]
Developmental theories are sometimes
presented not as shifts between qualitatively different stages, but as gradual
increments on separate dimensions. Development of epistemological
beliefs (beliefs about knowledge) have been described in terms of gradual
changes in people's belief in: certainty and permanence of knowledge, fixedness
of ability, and credibility of authorities such as teachers and experts. People
develop more sophisticated beliefs about knowledge as they gain in education
and maturity.[40]
Motivation
Motivation is an internal state that activates, guides and sustains
behavior. Motivation can have several impacting effects on how students learn
and how they behave towards subject matter:[41]
- Provide direction towards goals
- Enhance cognitive processing abilities and performance
- Direct behavior toward particular goals
- Lead to increased effort and energy
- Increase initiation of and persistence in activities
Educational psychology research on
motivation is concerned with the volition or will that students bring to a task, their level of interest and intrinsic motivation, the personally held goals that
guide their behavior, and their belief about the causes of their success or
failure. As intrinsic motivation deals with activities that act as their own
rewards, extrinsic motivation deals with motivations that are brought on by
consequences or punishments. A form of attribution theory developed by Bernard Weiner[42]
describes how students' beliefs about the causes of academic success or failure
affect their emotions and motivations. For example, when students attribute
failure to lack of ability, and ability is perceived as uncontrollable, they
experience the emotions of shame and embarrassment
and consequently decrease effort and show poorer performance. In contrast, when
students attribute failure to lack of effort, and effort is perceived as
controllable, they experience the emotion of guilt and
consequently increase effort and show improved performance.[42]
The self-determination
theory (SDT) was developed by
psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan. SDT focuses on the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in driving human behavior and posits inherent growth and
development tendencies. It emphasizes the degree to which an individual's
behavior is self-motivated and self-determined. When applied to the realm of
education, the self-determination theory is concerned primarily with promoting
in students an interest in learning, a value of education, and a confidence in
their own capacities and attributes.[43]
Motivational theories also explain
how learners' goals affect the way they engage with academic tasks.[44]
Those who have mastery goals strive to increase their ability and
knowledge. Those who have performance approach goals strive for high
grades and seek opportunities to demonstrate their abilities. Those who have performance
avoidance goals are driven by fear of failure and avoid situations where
their abilities are exposed. Research has found that mastery goals are
associated with many positive outcomes such as persistence in the face of
failure, preference for challenging tasks, creativity
and intrinsic motivation. Performance avoidance goals are associated with negative
outcomes such as poor concentration while studying, disorganized studying, less
self-regulation, shallow information processing and test anxiety.
Performance approach goals are associated with positive outcomes, and some
negative outcomes such as an unwillingness to seek help and shallow information
processing.[44]
Locus of control is a salient factor in the successful academic performance
of students. During the 1970s and '80s, Cassandra B. Whyte did significant educational research studying locus of
control as related to the academic achievement of students pursuing higher
education coursework. Much of her educational research and publications focused
upon the theories of Julian B. Rotter
in regard to the importance of internal control and successful academic
performance.[45]
Whyte reported that individuals who perceive and believe that their hard work
may lead to more successful academic outcomes, instead of depending on luck or
fate, persist and achieve academically at a higher level. Therefore, it is
important to provide education and counseling in this regard.[46]
Technology
Bloom's
taxonomy of educational objectives:
categories in the cognitive domain[47]
Instructional design, the systematic design of materials, activities and
interactive environments for learning, is broadly informed by educational
psychology theories and research. For example, in defining learning goals or
objectives, instructional designers often use a taxonomy
of educational objectives created
by Benjamin Bloom and colleagues.[47]
Bloom also researched mastery learning,
an instructional strategy in which learners only advance to a new learning
objective after they have mastered its prerequisite objectives. Bloom[48]
discovered that a combination of mastery learning with one-to-one tutoring is
highly effective, producing learning outcomes far exceeding those normally
achieved in classroom instruction. Gagné, another
psychologist, had earlier developed an influential method of task analysis
in which a terminal learning goal is expanded into a hierarchy of learning
objectives[49]
connected by prerequisite relationships. The following list of technological
resources incorporate computer-aided instruction and intelligence for
educational psychologists and their students:
- Intelligent tutoring system
- Educational technology
- Cognitive tutor
- Cooperative learning
- Collaborative learning
- Problem-based learning
- Computer-supported collaborative learning
- Constructive alignment
Technology is essential to the field
of educational psychology, not only for the psychologist themselves as far as
testing, organization, and resources, but also for students. Educational
Psychologists whom reside in the K- 12 setting focus the majority of their time
with Special Education students. It has been found that students with
disabilities learning through technology such as IPad applications and videos
are more engaged and motivated to learn in the classroom setting. Liu et al.
explain that learning-based technology allows for students to be more focused,
and learning is more efficient with learning technologies. The authors explain
that learning technology also allows for students with social- emotional
disabilities to participate in distance learning.[50]
Applications
Teaching
A class size experiment in the
United States found that attending small classes for 3 or more years in the
early grades increased high school graduation of students from low income
families.[51]
Research on classroom management and pedagogy is conducted to guide teaching practice and form a
foundation for teacher education programs. The goals of classroom management
are to create an environment conducive to learning and to develop students'
self-management skills. More specifically, classroom management strives to
create positive teacher–student and peer relationships, manage student groups
to sustain on-task behavior, and use counseling and other psychological methods
to aid students who present persistent psychosocial problems.[52]
Introductory educational psychology
is a commonly required area of study in most North American teacher education
programs. When taught in that context, its content varies, but it typically
emphasizes learning theories (especially cognitively oriented ones), issues
about motivation, assessment of students' learning, and classroom management. A
developing Wikibook
about educational psychology
gives more detail about the educational psychology topics that are typically
presented in preservice teacher education.
Counseling
Training
In order to become an educational
psychologist, students can complete an undergraduate degree in their choice.
They then must go to graduate school to study education psychology, counseling
psychology, and/ or school counseling. Most students today are also receiving
their doctorate degrees in order to hold the "psychologist"
title.Educational psychologists work in a variety of settings. Some work in
university settings where they carry out research on the cognitive and social
processes of human development, learning and education. Educational
psychologists may also work as consultants in designing and creating
educational materials, classroom programs and online courses.Educational
psychologists who work in k–12 school settings (closely related are school psychologists in the US and Canada) are trained at the master's and doctoral levels.
In addition to conducting assessments, school psychologists provide services
such as academic and behavioral intervention, counseling, teacher consultation,
and crisis intervention. However, school psychologists are generally more
individual-oriented towards students.[53]
Employment
outlook
Employment for psychologists in the
United States is expected to grow faster than most occupations through the year
2014, with anticipated growth of 18–26%. One in four psychologists are employed
in educational settings. In the United States, the mediansalary for psychologists in primary and secondary schools is
US$58,360 as of May 2004.[54]
In recent decades the participation
of women as professional researchers in North American educational psychology
has risen dramatically.[55]
Methods
of research
Educational psychology, as much as
any other field of psychology heavily relies on a balance of pure observation
and quantitative methods in psychology. The study of education generally
combines the studies of history, sociology, and ethics with theoretical
approaches. Smeyers and Depaepe explain that historically, the study of
education and child rearing have been associated with the interests of
policymakers and practitioners within the educational field, however, the
recent shift to sociology and psychology has opened the door for new findings
in education as a social science. Now being its own academic discipline,
educational psychology has proven to be helpful for social science researchers.[56]
Quantitative research is the backing
to most observable phenomenon in psychology. This involves observing, creating,
and understanding a distribution of data based upon the studies subject matter.
Researchers use particular variables to interpret their data distributions from
their research and employ statistics as a way of creating data tables and
analyzing their data. Psychology has moved from the "common sense"
reputations initially posed by Thomas Reid to the methodology approach comparing
independent and dependent variables through natural observation, experiments,
or combinations of the two. Though results are still, with statistical methods,
objectively true based upon significance variables or p- values.[56]
See
also
 |
|
 |
- Applied psychology
- Classroom management
- Cognitive sciences
- Instructional theory
- Learning sciences
- Learning theory (education)
- List of educational psychologists
- List of publications in psychology
- Living educational theory- an educational psychology action research method
- Motivation theory
- School psychologist
- Special education
References
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